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Barefoot, B. O. (2003). Findings from the Second National Survey of First-Year Academic Practices, 2002. Brevard, NC: Policy Center for the First Year of College. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.brevard.edu/fyc/survey2002/findings.htm

These findings are based on a survey results received from 1,000 colleges concerning first-year programs for students. Several of the questions were related to developmental education. While developmental education courses are offered at nearly all two-year institutions, the percentage drops dramatically with public four-year institutions: 80%, baccalaureate general colleges; 40%, baccalaureate liberal arts colleges; 70%, master's I & II; 70%, research intensive; 60%, research extensive. In the past five years the percentage of students taking developmental courses has increased most at public two-year institutions. In general, enrollment has remained even at four-year institutions though there are differences by type. About a third of baccalaureate-general colleges reported increases while an equal percentage reported decreases at research extensive institutions.

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Comparing past and current policies concerning academic access, developmental education, and learning assistance programs helps to identify emerging trends that may have regional or national impact on the field. As suggested by the futuring model developed by John Naisbitt and others, it is important to observe activities and policies developed in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, and Texas. For a variety of geographic and demographic reasons, these “leading indicator� states often are predictive of future trends in a wide variety of areas in American society. The reader is encouraged to be especially observant of events occurring in these states.

The entries on this blog for the next few weeks will focus on a number of reports and publications on policies related to access programs. One of the challenges with this analysis is understanding whether the policies represent a growing trend. Policies can be as different as night and day between states that adjoin one another. While some states have enacted policies that have reduced access, the majority of the time such policies are not approved by the state legislatures. Hopefully the blog entries over the next few weeks will allow you to draw your own conclusions on this controversial area of scholarship.

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Wambach, C., Brothen, T., & Dikel, T. N. (2000). Toward a developmental theory for developmental educators. Journal of Developmental Education, 24(1), 2-4, 6, 8, 10, 29.

The authors propose a comprehensive theory of developmental education which is based on developmental psychology. There are three basic concepts in the theory: demandingness, responsiveness, and self-regulation. Rather than operating with a "deficit model," this theory is rooted in developmental psychology which focuses on building the strengths of all students. A number of recommendations are provided for practical implementation of this theory in the classroom.

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Pedelty, M. (2001). Stigma. In J. L. Higbee, D. B. Lundell, & I. M. Duranczyk (Eds.), 2001: A developmental odyssey. Warrensburg, MO: National Association for Developmental Education.

Thirty-eight students conducted ethnographic research among their peers at a developmental program within a large public university. The students found that many of their peers feel stigmatized. The author argues that stigmatization is an inevitable outcome of academic ranking and a result of the ideological narratives driving U.S. education. He proposes a "justice model" to deal with issues of academic stigma among students and faculty in developmental education programs.

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Lundell, D. B., & Higbee, J. L. Eds (2001). Theoretical perspectives for developmental education. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research on Developmental Education, General College, University of Minnesota. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.gen.umn.edu/ research/crdeul/publications.htm

This monograph provides nearly 20 articles in four sections: new and revised theories for developmental education; culture and constructivism; literacy and composition; and theories for math and science.

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Lundell, D. B., & Collins, T. (1999). Toward a theory of developmental education: The centrality of "discourse". In J. L. Higbee, & P. L. Dwinell (Eds.), The expanding role of developmental education (pp. 3-20). Morrow, GA: National Association for Developmental Education. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://nade.net/documents/ mono99/mono99.1.pdf

After a review of various theories that have been used to define developmental education, the authors critique them regarding them. They found that most were theoretically underdeveloped. The authors recommend the idea of "Discourse" as articulated by James Paul Gee as a theory to guide developmental education.

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Kinney, D. P. (2001). Developmental theory: Application in a developmental mathematics program. Journal of Developmental Education, 25(2), 10-12, 14, 16, 18, 34.

The developmental theory concepts of self-regulation, demandingness, and responsiveness (Wambach, Brothen, and Dikel, 2000) are applied to a developmental mathematics program at the General College of the University of Minnesota.

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Higbee, J. L. (1996). Defining developmental education: A commentary. In J. L. Higbee, & P. I. Dwinell (Eds.), Defining developmental education (pp. 1-5). Morrow, GA: National Association for Developmental Education. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www. umkc.edu/cad/nade/nadedocs/96monpap/jhmpap96.htm

The author applies Chickering's Seven Vectors of College Student Development (1993) to understanding a theory of developmental education: developing competence, managing emotions, developing mature interpersonal relationships, establishing identity, developing purpose, developing integrity.

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Higbee, J. L. (2000). Commentary: Who is the developmental student? The Learning Assistance Review, 5(1), 41-50.

The author writes in the conclusion, "Who is the developmental student? More appropriate question might be, 'Is there any student who would not benefit from courses, programs, and services designed to enhance academic achievement and promote the development of the individual to his or her full potential?'" The author argues for an expansion of the definition, mission, and service area of developmental education for a wider student body.

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Chung, C. J. (2005). Theory, practice, and the future of developmental education. Journal of Developmental Education, 28(3), 2-4, 6,8, 10, 32.

This article forcefully argues at an overarching, shared theoretical framework is necessary for developmental education practitioners. Rather than importing theories and applying them with developmental education, an alternative approach that is practice-oriented is recommended for adoption. There are three stages in this practice-oriented approach: 1. Practitioners engage in reflection-in-action; 2. based upon their reflection-in-action, practitioners articulate a personal theory; and 3. Compare personal theories at different levels and find commonalities.

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Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2002). Developmental theory: The next steps. The Learning Assistance Review, 7(2), 37-44. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from http://www.eiu. edu/~lrnasst/nclca/nclcajoi.htm

After providing a short summary of their theory of developmental education (self-regulation, demandingness, and responsiveness), the authors recommend several ways to implement the theory within general education courses. Such an integrated approach to developmental education, rather than the traditional separate track system, will require institutional commitment as well as professional development in new learning pedagogies for those who instruct the new courses.

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Swail, W. S. (2002). Higher education and the new demographics: Questions for policy. Change Magazine, 34(4), 15-23.

The author notes the changing demographics of higher education which lead to increasing diversity upon entry into the institution, but at the same time reveal that low-income, first generation, and students of color are less likely to graduate than their counterparts. The author asks many policy questions that will need to be answered as higher education is held accountable for producing an educated workforce from the rapidly growing diverse population of the country.

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Pedelty, M. H., & Jacobs, W. R. (2001). The place of "culture" in developmental education's social sciences. In D. B. Lundell, & J. L. Higbee (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives for developmental education (pp. 75-90). Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research in Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.gen.umn.edu/research/crdeul/publications.htm

The authors state in the preface to the article that a new trend within developmental education is to view students in their full complexities, rather than as "deficits" to be fixed. This position can be actualized in the social sciences by retheorizing "culture". The authors use a cultural studies framework to combine anthropological and sociological groundings into a model of culture that demands that first the students' pre-c0llege lived experiences and understandings be accessed, and then work with them to expand, rather than replace, their knowledge with the formal discourses that they must master to negotiate academic spaces.

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Miksch, K. L., Higbee, J. L., Jehanglr, R. R., Lundell, D. B., Bruch, P. L., Siaka, K., & Dotson, M. V. (2003). Multicultural Awareness Project for Institutional Transformation (MAP IT). Minneapolis, MN: Multicultural Concerns Committee and the Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota-Twin Cities. Additional copies available from the Center for Research on Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, 128 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, MN 55455. The MAP IT survey instruments, extended bibliography, and additional reports related to MAP IT were retrieved July 4, 2004 from http://www.gen.umn.edu/research/crdeul/publications.htm

The Multicultural Awareness Project for Institutional Transformation (MAP IT) was developed at the University of Minnesota's General College with the goal of integrating multicultural education within postsecondary education. MAP IT is an adaptation of Diversity Within Unity: Essential Principles for Teaching and Learning in a Multicultural Society (Banks et al., 2001). This publication contains the MAP IT set of 10 Guiding Principles and four survey instruments designed to aid in measuring the extent to which institutions of higher education centralize multicultural education and incorporate the guiding principles. Instruments are provided for survey of the following four groups within the institution: administrator, faculty & instructional staff, student development and support services staff, and student.

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Jehangir, R. R. (2001). Cooperative learning in the multicultural classroom. In D. B. Lundell, & J. L. Higbee (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives for developmental education (pp. 91-99). Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research in Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.gen.umn.edu/research/crdeul/publications.htm

The author describes the role of cooperative learning in creating an inclusive, interactive classroom for fostering both developmental education and multicultural education. Key elements of cooperative learning include: value of learning, shared governance, group accountability, and student-generated construction of knowledge. All these elements permit a more open and even discussion of issues from a variety of perspectives and cultures rather than the learning setting being dominated by the course professor who may represent only one cultural perspective and often that of the dominant culture in society.

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Higbee, J. L., Lundell, D. B., & Duranczyk, I. M. (Eds.) (2003). Multiculturalism in developmental education. Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research on Developmental Education, General College, University of Minnesota. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.gen.umn.edu/research/crdeul/publications.htm This publication is the first major monograph or book written on the topic of multicultrual developmental education.

The first three chapters of this monograph provide models for integrating multiculturalism in developmental education. The remaining chapters focus on conversations related to multiculturalism in developmental education, reported by our colleagues in the General College of the University of Minnesota. The work of these authors reflects the General College's efforts to implement its multicultural mission. The following chapters are included in this monograph: The Centrality of Multiculturalism in Developmental Education (Karen L. Miksch, Patrick L. Bruch, Jeanne L. Higbee, Rashné R. Jehangir, and Dana Britt Lundell); Walking the Talk: Using Learning-Centered Strategies to Close Performance Gaps (Donna McKusick and Irving Pressley McPhail); Creating Access Through Universal Instructional Design (Karen S. Kalivoda); Multicultural Legacies for the 21st Century: A Conversation with James A. Banks (Patrick L. Bruch, Jeanne L. Higbee, and Dana Britt Lundell); Is there a Role for Academic Achievement Tests in Multicultural Developmental Education? (Thomas Brothen and Cathrine Wambach); The Triumphs and Tribulations of a Multicultural Concerns Committee (David L. Ghere); MultiCultural Development Center (MCDC): Sharing Diversity (Ghafar A. Lakanwal and Holly Choon Hyang Pettman); Summary Report on the Third National Meeting on Future Directions in Developmental Education: Grants, Research, Diversity, and Multiculturalism (Dana Britt Lundell); Report of the Future Directions Meeting Multicultural Themes Track (Jeanne L. Higbee and Holly Choon Hyang Pettman); and appendices.

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Higbee, J. L., Bruch, P. L., Jehangir, R. R., Lundell, D. B., & Miksch, K. L. (2003). The multicultural mission of developmental education: A starting point. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 19(2), 47-51.

The authors describe the work of the Multicultural Awareness Project for Institutional Transformation (MAP-IT) and the development of ten guiding principles for institutions regarding changes in institutional governance, organization, and equity; faculty and staff development; student development; intergroup relations; and assessment. this work is based on Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a multicultural society (Banks et al, 2001).

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Higbee, J. L. (2001). Promoting multiculturalism in developmental education. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 18(1), 51-57.

The author describes the importance of multiculturalism being deeply embedded within the curriculum and culture of the institution in general and developmental education in particular. This is especially true since often such programs have the most culturally diverse student populations. Examples are provided for ways for the institution and the classroom instructor to incorporate multiculturalism.

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Brunch, P. (2002). Toward a new conversation: Multiculturalism for developmental educators. In J. L. Higbee, D. B. Lundell, & I. M. Duranczyk (Eds.), Developmental education: Policy and practice (pp. 35-44). Auburn, GA: National Association for Developmental Education.

The author provides a review of the place of multiculturalism within developmental education and the impact, or lack thereof, that it has had. After exploring the various positions taken on multiculturalism, the author proposes a new conversation based on asymmetrical reciprocity. Following this discussion, the author makes several recommendations for transforming writing instruction to foster this model.

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Bruch, P. L., & Higbee, J. L. (2002). Reflections on multiculturalism in developmental education. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 33(1), 77-90.

This article reports on an effort to better understand the impact of increasing demographic diversity and calls for accountability. The authors describe the conditions needed for constructive local discussions and reforms relating to multiculturalism. The authors report how a group of developmental education professionals in a large, interdisciplinary developmental education unit understand multiculturalism. They explore the potentials and challenges involved in initiating local conversations about multiculturalism.

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Boylan, H. R., Sutton, E. M., & Anderson, J. A. (2003). Diversity as a resource in developmental education. Journal of Developmental Education, 27(1), 12-14, 16-17.

This article explores the impact of cultural diversity in developmental education programs and how it is a resource for higher achievement for all students in the class. Research suggests higher intellectual development and persistence rates for students in such a classroom setting.

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Barajas, H. L. (2001). Is developmental education a racial project? Considering race relationships in developmental education spaces. In D. B. Lundell, & J. L. Higbee (Eds.), Theoretical perspectives for developmental education (pp. 65-74). Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research in Developmental Education and Urban Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota. Retrieved July 4, 2004, from: http://www.gen.umn.edu/ research/crdeul/publications.htm

The author states in the preface to the article that as a sociologist teaching in a developmental education unit, it was clear that both disciplines, sociology and education, revolved around White theories, create spaces that are inherently White, and create a culture of Whiteness that is more apt to study persons of color than to utilize their skills, talents, and ideas. The theoretical arguments and empirical evidence in this article explore the possibility that schools are what critical theory terms a racial project in which everyday school experiences and the school process are racially organized. Often, participants in racial projects silences students of color, and creates barriers to resources much like gendered spaces silence and create barriers for women.

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